The Judiciary Act of 1801 and the Midnight Judges

The Judiciary Act of 1801 reorganized the federal judicial branch by creating the nation’s first circuit court judgeships. The act and the last-minute manner in which several so-called â€Å"midnight judges† were appointed resulted in a classic battle between the Federalists, who wanted a stronger federal government, and the weaker government Anti-Federalists for control of the still-developing U.S. court system. Background: The Election of 1800 Until ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution in 1804, the electors of the Electoral College cast their votes for president and vice president separately. As a result, the sitting president and vice president could be from different political parties or factions. Such was the case in 1800  when incumbent Federalist President John Adams faced off against incumbent Republican Anti-Federalist Vice President Thomas Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election. In the election, sometimes called the â€Å"Revolution of 1800,† Jefferson defeated Adams. However, before Jefferson was inaugurated, the Federalist-controlled Congress passed, and still-President Adams  signed the Judiciary Act of 1801. After a year filled with political controversy over its enactment and implantation, the act was repealed in 1802. What Adams’ Judiciary Act of 1801 Did Among other provisions, the Judiciary Act of 1801, enacted along with the Organic Act for the District of Columbia, reduced the number of U.S. Supreme Court justices from six to five and eliminated the requirement that the Supreme Court justices also â€Å"ride circuit† to preside over cases in the lower courts of appeals. To take care of the circuit court duties, the law created 16 new presidentially-appointed judgeships spread over six judicial districts. In many ways the act’s further divisions of the states into more circuit and district courts served to make the federal courts even more powerful than the state courts, a move strongly opposed by the Anti-Federalists. The Congressional Debate Passage of the Judiciary Act of 1801 did not come easily. The legislative process in Congress came to a virtual halt during the debate between Federalists and Jefferson’s Anti-Federalist Republicans. Congressional Federalists and their incumbent President John Adams supported the act, arguing that more judges and courts would help protect the federal government from hostile state governments they called â€Å"the corrupters of public opinion,† in reference to their vocal opposition to the replacement of the Articles of Confederation by the Constitution.   Anti-Federalist Republicans and their incumbent vice president Thomas Jefferson argued that the act would further weaken the state governments and help Federalists gain influential appointed jobs or â€Å"political patronage positions† within the federal government.  The Republicans also argued against expanding the powers of the very courts that had prosecuted many of their immigrant supporters under the Alien and Sedition Acts. Passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress and signed by President Adams in 1789, the Alien and Sedition Acts were designed to silence and weaken the Anti-Federalist Republican Party. The laws gave the government the power to prosecute and deport foreigners, as well as limiting their right to vote. While an early version of the Judiciary Act of 1801 had been introduced before the 1800 presidential election, Federalist President John Adams signed the act into law on February 13, 1801. Less than three weeks later, Adams’ term and the Federalist’s majority in the Sixth Congress would end. When Anti-Federalist Republican President Thomas Jefferson took office on March 1, 1801, his first initiative was to see to it that the Republican-controlled Seventh Congress repealed the act he so passionately detested. The ‘Midnight Judges’ Controversy Aware that Anti-Federalist Republican Thomas Jefferson would soon sit as his desk, outgoing President John Adams had quickly—and controversially—filled the 16 new circuit judgeships, as well as several other new court-related offices created by the Judiciary Act of 1801, mostly with members of his own Federalist party. In 1801, the District of Columbia consisted of two counties, Washington (now Washington, D.C.) and Alexandria (now Alexandria, Virginia). On March 2, 1801, outgoing President Adams nominated 42 people to serve as justices of the peace in the two counties. The Senate, still controlled by Federalists, confirmed the nominations on March 3. Adams began signing the 42 new judges’ commissions  but did not complete the task until late in the night of his last official day in office. As a result, Adams’ controversial actions became known as the â€Å"midnight judges† affair, which was about to become even more controversial. Having just been named Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, former Secretary of State John Marshall placed the great seal of the United States on the commissions of all 42 of the â€Å"midnight justices.† However, under the law at the time, judicial commissions were not considered official until they were physically delivered to the new judges. Mere hours before Anti-Federalist Republican President-elect Jefferson took office, Chief Justice John Marshall’s brother James Marshall began delivering the commissions. But by the time President Adams left office at noon on March 4, 1801, only a handful of the new judges in Alexandria County had received their commissions. None of the commissions bound for the 23 new judges in Washington County had been delivered and President Jefferson would start his term with a judicial crisis. The Supreme Court Decides Marbury v. Madison When Anti-Federalist Republican President Thomas Jefferson first sat down in the Oval Office, he found the still undelivered â€Å"midnight judges† commissions issued by his rival Federalist predecessor John Adams waiting for him. Jefferson immediately reappointed the six Anti-Federalist Republicans who Adams had appointed, but refused to reappoint the remaining 11 Federalists. While most of the snubbed Federalists accepted Jefferson’s action, Mr. William Marbury, to say the least, did not. Marbury, an influential Federalist Party leader from Maryland, sued the federal government in an attempt to force the Jefferson administration to deliver his judicial commission and allow him to take his place on the bench. Marbury’s suit resulted in one of the most important decisions in the history of the U.S. Supreme Court, Marbury v. Madison. In its Marbury v. Madison decision, the Supreme Court established the principle that a federal court could declare a law enacted by Congress void if that law was found to be inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution. â€Å"A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void,† stated the ruling. In his suit, Marbury asked the courts to issue a writ of mandamus forcing President Jefferson to deliver all of the undelivered judicial commissions signed by former President Adams. A writ of mandamus is an order issued by a court to a government official ordering that official to properly carry out their official duty or correct an abuse or error in the application of their power. While finding that Marbury was entitled to his commission, the Supreme Court refused to issue the writ of mandamus. Chief Justice John Marshall, writing the Court’s unanimous decision, held that the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus. Marshall further held that a section of the Judiciary Act of 1801 providing that writs of mandamus might be issued was not consistent with the Constitution and was therefore void. While it specifically denied the Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus, Marbury v. Madison greatly increased the Court’s overall power by establishing the rule that â€Å"it is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is.† Indeed, since Marbury v. Madison, the power to decide the constitutionality of laws enacted by Congress has been reserved to the U.S. Supreme Court. Repeal of the Judiciary Act Of 1801 Anti-Federalist Republican President Jefferson moved swiftly to undo his Federalist predecessor’s expansion of the federal courts. In January 1802, Jefferson’s staunch supporter, Kentucky Senator John Breckinridge introduced a bill repealing the Judiciary Act of 1801. In February, the hotly debated bill was passed by the Senate in a narrow 16-15 vote. The Anti-Federalist Republican-controlled House of Representatives passed the Senate bill without amendment in March and after a year of controversy and political intrigue, the Judiciary Act of 1801 was no more. Impeachment of Samuel Chase The fallout from the repeal of the Judiciary Act resulted in the first and, to date, the only impeachment of a sitting Supreme Court Justice, Samuel Chase. Appointed by George Washington, the staunchly Federalist Chase had publicly attacked the repeal in May 1803, telling a Baltimore grand jury, â€Å"The late alteration of the federal judiciary ... will take away all security for property and personal liberty, and our Republican constitution will sink into a mobocracy, the worst of all popular governments.† Anti-Federalist President Jefferson responded by persuading the House of Representatives to impeach Chase, asking lawmakers, â€Å"Ought the seditious and official attack on the principles of our Constitution go unpunished?† In 1804, the House agreed with Jefferson, voting to impeach Chase. However, he was acquitted by the Senate of all charges in March 1805, in a trial conducted by Vice President Aaron Burr.

The Glass Menagerie By Tennessee William - 1185 Words

The play â€Å"The Glass Menagerie,† written by Tennessee William in 1945, recounts around a family trying to escape the limitations of time and their difficulties coping with life. The main character Tom is the man of the house watching over his mother and sister since his dad left. He is to stay home and fulfill the duties of working at a warehouse but his dream is to leave and be adventurous. Laura, Tom’s sister viewed as crippled and stuck in the present of her disability and shyness stopping her from doing things in her life. Amanda, Tom’s mother lives in a world that is sensitively bound to the past. William portrays Amanda, Tom’s mother lives in the world that is sensitively bound to her past life. She stays talking about herself younger and pretty getting gentleman callers. In the play Amanda states, â€Å"This is the dress in which I led the cotillion. Won the cakewalk twice at Sunset Hill, wore one spring to the Governor’s ball in Jackson! See how I sashayed around the ballroom, Laura? I wore it on Sundays for my gentlemen callers! I had it on the day I met you father—(6,412-13).† Amanda can never fairly remove herself from the past to arrange the stipulations with the course of life in the current events or what that present promise for the future. Since the past dominates the present, the future is invalid in malice of her worries for Laura’s future. She suggest that Tom finds a gentleman caller at the warehouse for Laura. In the play Amanda states, â€Å"Find out one that’sShow MoreRelatedThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams9 85 Words   |  4 Pageshardly catch it going. ¨ This quote by the author of The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee Williams, describes both The Glass Menagerie, a memory play, and the life of Tennessee Williams himself, for whom memories played a large role in his life. Within the play, many parallels can be drawn between the life of Williams and the life of Tom, the main character, such as a disdain for factory work. In addition, several characters in The Glass Menagerie have a difficult time fitting into the roles that theirRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams Essay940 Words   |  4 PagesTennessee Williams was a renowned Pulitzer Prize-winning playwriter for his numerous plays throughout his career. One of such plays is The Glass Menagerie. After perfecting his play for many years, The Glass Menagerie was first introduced to Broadway on March 31, 1945. As a young writer, Williams lived vicariously through his plays. Throughout this play in particular, there are severa l allegories that pertain to Williams life. Although Williams had a relatively happy childhood, his life changedRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams986 Words   |  4 PagesTennessee Williams’s The Glass Menagerie, is a classic drama about a young man who is tired of his dull and boring existence. Tom, the main character, struggles to deal with his family, who is apparently holding him back in life. With the use of powerful writing techniques, Williams is able to captivate his audience and create a play that has stood the test of time. An excellent writing technique employed by Williams that contributes to The Glass Menagerie’s success is his use of plot. ThroughoutRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams932 Words   |  4 Pages THE GLASS MENAGERIE Name Instructor Institution Course Date The Glass Menagerie Tennessee Williams, the author in the play †The Glass Menagerie† that is based on his life that presents characters that, as caught animals in an cage, live in woeful states and just wish to unravel themselves from this state (Fisher, 2010). The primary clash in the story emerges through their longing to encounter a different world, but their condition opens them to life s unforgiving realities. LifeRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams1249 Words   |  5 Pagesthe outside world The Glass Menagerie is very interesting because William s play relates to alot of people and their situations, people can learn alot from it alot whether they connect to Amanda and her past or to Laura and her lack of confidence and being in a world of her own or to Tom and his internal conflict about abandoning his family or staying with them. Laura s life is all about her glass menageries what happens when her glass unicorn breaks? What happens when a gentlemanRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams1619 Words   |  7 PagesIsolation is prevalent in â€Å"The Glass Menagerie† by Tennessee Williams. This is presented in symbols such as blue roses and the glass unicorn, for they are imagined objects and only existent in another fantasy world. Williams incorporates such arcane symbols to draw out his characters, Amanda, Laura, and Tom, and how they cope with confinement. Most importantly, the symbols of the play represent how isolation debilita tes them psychologically in an attempt to connect with reality. The jonquils representRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee William1014 Words   |  5 PagesIn the play â€Å"The Glass Menagerie† of Tennessee William, he wrote a drama play to emphasize readers about the life is at a standstill the Wingfield family. Through of the Wingfield family, he uses many symbols which represent many things, but the important main symbolization is fire escape that shows three main characters; Tom Wingfield, his fire escape is the way out of Amanda and Laura. Amanda Wingfield, hope gentlemen callers to enter their lives, and Laura Wingfield, who wants in her own worldRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams1534 Words   |  7 PagesThe Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Tennessee Williams, born Thomas Lanier Williams, wrote The Glass Menagerie, a play which premiered in Chicago in 1944. This award winning play, autobiographical in nature, represented a time in which Williams felt the obligation of his responsibilities in regards to the care of his family. Robert DiYanni, Adjunct Professor of Humanities at New York University, rated it as, â€Å"One of his best-loved plays...a portrayal of loneliness among characters who confuseRead MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams Essay876 Words   |  4 PagesIn Tennessee Williams’ The Glass Menagerie, there is a collection of glass animal figurines that belong to Laura. Laura uses those figurines to escape her reality. The â€Å"glass menagerie† is also a metaphor because all of the characters have a metaphorical glass menagerie that they use to escape their reality. Tom escapes his reality by going to the movies, drinking, and writing poetry. Tom says, â€Å"I go to the movies because – I like adventure†¦ something I don’t have much of at work† (Williams 33)Read MoreThe Glass Menagerie By Tennessee Williams867 Words   |  4 Pagesdraw the line between getting what you want and doing what you are obligated to do? In The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams, the main characters are torn between fulfilling their desires and aligning with their role in society. On the surface, Amanda Wingfield plays the role of a caring mother that would do anything in her children’s best interest. However, according to the play, â€Å"The Glass Menagerie†, you should never be fooled by the â€Å"Illusion of the truth.† She indeed values her children’s

Project Quality Progress and Evluation

Questions: 1.Describe how the Project Quality Plan has been Developed, In Particular.2.Describe the Primary Roles and Responsibilities of the Project Team and Other Key Stakeholders as related to Project Quality Management.3.Add Information about your overall approach to QA and QC: do you have Identified Key Points to undertake QA and QC Activities? 4.List and Define the Quality Tools that will be used to Measure Project Quality and Level of Performance to Defined Quality Standards/Metrics. 5.Discuss Your Plan for QA: timing, tools and techniques that will be utilised, key Personnel that will perform QA. Any relevant Information on how you will Analyse the Data.6.Your Plan for QC: at what time it will be Performed, tools and techniques that will be utilised, key personnel that will Perform QC. Any relevant Information on how you will Analyze the Data.7.The Table below is your Quality Planning Register. Review your plan and complete the table making sure that you address all the deliverables for your Project.8. What are the Steps to assure the Quality when a Deliverable is not met9.Remedial Action to Ensure the Performance of the Quality Assurance Activities. Answers: 1.Quality Management Approach Quality management is considered as the procedure for guaranteeing that all project maneuvers important to configuration, plan and actualize a project are successful and proficient regarding the motivation behind the objective and its execution. For this specific construction project the selected quality management approach is PMIs PMBOK. PMBOK considers the ISO standards for managing the quality of the projects: how much the inherent characteristics are able to satisfy the predefined requirements of the project. Prerequisites of a project are dictated by its different stakeholders. Satisfying stakeholders prerequisites, or at the end of the day extend quality administration is one of PMBOK's nine project administration information or knowledge areas. It comprises of three procedures (as expressed in verb-thing builds), Perform Quality Assurance, Plan Quality and Perform Quality Control. In the different sections of this report, the accompanying quality administration approach components are characterized and portrayed: Quality Planning, Quality Assurance, and Quality Control Quality exercises and measures significant to [Project Name] Appropriate quality measurements and measures for benchmarks for the processes the project, deliverables and testing. 2.Organisation, responsibilities and interfaces Project Organisation chart Name Roles Quality Responsibilities [PLEASE FILL] Project manager Managing different risks, coordination in the design for the project and change management through the control of the information. [PLEASE FILL] Architect Planning, designing, and development are the main responsibilities of a architect. Additionally, architect might be required to give predesign figures, for example, a natural effect or possibility think about, cost investigation and land-utilize ponder. [PLEASE FILL] Procurement manager A procurement manger must assess planned providers before marking them up to guarantee they address the projects requirements. [PLEASE FILL] Safety officer In any construction project security officer guarantees that laborers are taking after built up arrangements and wellbeing controls. A development security officer may go up against extra parts and duties, yet their essential occupation is making more secure development destinations. Development wellbeing officers work intimately with the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. The security officer is likewise in charge of exploring and meeting all state and government wellbeing standard necessities for record-keeping. Damage logs and other documentation is finished and submitted to related government organizations as a component of these necessities. The security officer likewise presents the, which is a synopsis of all wounds that brought about lost work time, confined obligations or occupation exchanges 3.Quality Planning Recognizing the standards and metrics for the management of the quality of the project is a basic action is a fundamental piece of any development procedure to enhance the quality and consistency of the project. The requirement for setting up the standards and performance matrices in this project can significantly as of late due to huge changes, headways in innovation and elevated requirement of the clients. The matrices keep up consistency in development prepare and guarantee more efficient use of materials bringing about critical decrease in cost to the clients. The extra taken a toll required to enhance quality by distinguishing the standards is straightforwardly corresponding to the event. Standards Metrics/Measures 450MPa Shear Strength 300MPa Tensile Strength 8/10 Customer Satisfaction Defect rate 4.Tools, environment and interfaces Tool Description QA/QC Application cause effect diagram To find out the cause for a Control charts. To maintain the standards for the different processes and their outcomes The control chart is a chart used to study how a procedure changes after some time. Information are plotted in time arrange. A control diagram dependably has a focal line for the normal, an upper line for the upper control constrains and a lower line for the lower control restrain. These lines are resolved from verifiable information External interface To manage the flow of the information in the project team. Meeting the desired level of the quality of the project. In this project the interface administration can be thought as the physical, legally binding and organizational interfaces. Physical interfaces are genuine, physical associations between at least two building components or parts. Legally binding interfaces are between works bundles when all is said in done connected with authority temporary workers. Hierarchical interface is the collaboration between different stakeholders involved in this project. Organizational interface can be internal and or external. The cause effect diagram is used in this as the project consist of large number of stakeholders and thus if any issue or conflict between the different stakeholders the source of the conflict and the cause of the issue in the project can be easily identified using this diagram. Control charts are utilized to routinely screen quality. Contingent upon the quantity of process qualities to be observed, there are two essential sorts of control outlines. The initially, alluded to as a universal control chart, is a graphical show (diagram) of one quality trademark. The second, alluded to as a multivariate control graph, in this project we have used the multivariate control charts. Divided nature of construction projects makes it testing in uniting multidisciplinary groups, materials, frameworks, spending plan and timetable for clear term .The crumbling can be under three areas viz. partners, information and innovation. 5.Quality Assurance Quality assurance activities are managed by the owner of the project or specialists in checking the quality control program built up and controlled by others. Generally these activities concentrate on organization and observation capacities. Observation capacities envelop the observing of the contractual worker's techniques materials, work force and any assessment and testing exercises. For this project this includes, The field testing of the used construction material and finished works. Surveying the contractors consistence with determinations, prerequisite for development techniques and personals, and materials. Maintaining the quality assurance manuals developed for the project. Analyzing, initiating and outline elucidation or changes in contract records for the project. b) Documenting al related tests, examination and visits by authority guests. c) Maintain photos of development advance and other important development occasions 6.Quality Control The essential function of the quality is the effective execution of a practical arrangement to guarantee that the required measures of value development are met at the end of the project. In quality control, the contractor characterizes methodology to oversee and control his own, architect, expert, all subcontractor and all provider exercises so that the finished project consents to contract prerequisites. For configuration manufacture gets this incorporates giving and keeping up a Design Quality Control arrange as a piece of the general contract for quality control. Periodical meetings and inspection of the construction process will ensure the control on the quality of the project. 7.Quality Planning Register Project Deliverables Quality Requirements Quality Standards QA Activities QC Activities Design drawings Must be met with the owner prerequisites Must be compatible with the international standards. Approval from the owner of the project After the completion of the project the verified with the plan of the project. Site investigation report NA NA NA NA Improvedprocess efficiency Project should be completed in time The tests should be completed in deadlines. Change in the tasks between the different personnel. To assign more skilled personnel to complete the project. New equipment or tools As per PMBOK As per the contract. NA NA Completed product As per PMBOK As per the contract NA NA. 8.Steps to assure the quality when a deliverable is not met This situation occurs due to neglecting the dependencies in the different deliverables for this, continuing without accomplishing past deliverables can be tricky for clear reasons. Deliverables that have conditions are distinguished and sequenced for particular and required reasons, making it deplorable to by-go without calculating in the effect and incorporating that in the change control prepare. It's imperative to perceive that there are conditions with regards to deliverables, and also a colossal effect if these are not met preceding progressing to the following. Different other factors that are to be considered in this phase incorporate contractor relationship management - constraining assertion terms and courses of action may convert into acquirement issues. Contractual worker relationship contemplations are another element to consider as genuinely necessary outsourced staff may fundamentally obstruct deliverable achievement if staffing requirements for the venture surpass accessible assets. 9.remedial action to ensure the performance of the quality assurance activities Quality Control investigations might be directed in an auspicious waytoward the start of a quantifiable element of work. A check of the preparatory work will figure out if or not the Contractor, through his Contractor Quality Control experts and the specialists included, completely comprehends and is equipped for finishing the work as determined. A each step it is important to document the progress and the activities conducted for assuring the predetermined quality. Additionally, it is important to look out the errors amongst arrangements and details; Check arrangements and particulars against prerequisites of which issues happened on comparative occupations; Analyze rises, evaluations and points of interest appeared on arrangements as existing, with those at the genuine site; and Report all blunders, oversights, errors, and insufficiencies to the Design Office Manager and Project Manager of the project. Lessons learned After the completion of the project it is evident that, in any project the quality control has a major role in client satisfaction. For this in the future projects we need to, Envision the development contractors operations by auditing the arrangements and details for every operation before it starts. Ina addition to that it is also important to discuss contract necessities in each Preparatory Phase Meeting with the development contractual worker before every operation start. Bibliography Alzahrani, J. I., Emsley, M. W. (2013). The impact of contractors attributes on construction project success: A post construction evaluation.International Journal of Project Management,31(2), 313-322. Chen, L., Luo, H. (2014). A BIM-based construction quality management model and its applications.Automation in construction,46, 64-73. Dionis, A., Len, S. L., Padrn, F., Adrin, M. C. (2014). Technical Management of Guarantee as Part of Quality Control in Construction of a Ship.Journal of Maritime Research,10(3), 23-28. Hallowell, M. R., Konrath, L., Molenaar, K. R., Oechler, E. F., Scott III, S. (2016). State of the Practice for Risk-Based Quality Assurance in State Departments of Transportation. InTransportation Research Board 95th Annual Meeting(No. 16-2485). Wetherill, G. B. (2013).Sampling inspection and quality control(Vol. 129). Springer. Zhong, W. (2015). Construction Quality Control Measures of Conversion Layers in Ultra High-Rise Buildings.World Construction,4(4), 40-42.

So You Want to Be an Engineer free essay sample

Even though my sister lives in Washington DC now, I still find myself marveling at the Discovery Channel – my favorite shows being â€Å"Mythbusters† and â€Å"Discovery Project Earth. We will write a custom essay sample on So You Want to Be an Engineer? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † These programs hold my attention in ways that allow me to focus my aptitude for and interest in science and engineering. By watching â€Å"Mythbusters,† I have witnessed how a working knowledge of science and engineering can work as the foundation on which to build an exciting, versatile, and productive career in engineering. Additionally, the entire cast of â€Å"Mythbusters† constantly reveals their unique personalities and senses of humor all while carrying out their responsibilities. The ability to be creative, use my intellect, and maintain my sense of humor are very important aspects of my education and future career that I can see resulting from an engineering degree. Not only has â€Å"Mythbusters† served as a significant influence on my future aspirations, but so has â€Å"Discovery Project Earth.† This miniseries relays information about the new technology and methods that scientists are creating and utilizing to reduce global warming and dependency on fossil fuels. While watching each episode religiously, I became aware of my concern for the environment and its protection. I watched the new methods being developed and could picture myself carrying out research of this nature in hopes of making a positive difference in the world and in people’s lives. I realized that I do not merely want to skate by in life behind a desk; I want to accomplish something, to continually be intrigued by and interested in my career, and to make a difference in the world – all through engineering. Additionally, I have never been shy about my passion for science and engineering as I have been involved in many science clubs and competitions throughout high school. The Junior Engineering Technical Society allowed me to think like an engineer and try to solve problems that engineers face on a daily basis. Then through the Toshiba NSTA Awards Competition, I worked with two other classmates interested in engineering to invent a product that would improve on past technology; furthermore, we actually received recognition as being in the top 10% of all entries. This project was very eye opening and exciting because I was once again given the opportunity to put on the shoes of an engineer. Not only did these competitions further my interest in becoming an engineer, but I began to realize that not many girls were involved in theses activities. This understanding seemed strange to me because I attend an all girls’ school where I am surrounded by girls interested in science. However, I realize that is not the case across the state and nation. As a result, I would love to change the stereotype that men are brainier and more adept at math and science so they should become engineers. Also, I have talked with my sister about her experience studying mechanical engineering in college, a very male dominated field. She felt a little underrepresented and that the men did not always take her seriously, but she says that this feeling motivated her to do better and prove them wrong in the end. Thus, I would like to change people’s minds about engineering as well. Everyone wants to make a difference in the world; however, I believe that as an engineer, the possibilities to make improvements are far greater. Because of my sister’s and my teachers’ guidance, I have developed a true passion for math, science, and problem solving. Thanks to these amazing people in my life, I have focused my talents towards engineering and even more specifically on energy and the environment. In a world, where consumption of energy and natural resources is continually climbing, I believe that it is our responsibility to attempt to lessen this dependency on finite resources. As a result, I hope to make a difference by developing new, more efficient, and more cost effective technology that uses renewable resources.

response to sherry turkle arti essays

response to sherry turkle arti essays Review of Sherry Turkles Article Sherry Turkle is an author of many things. She enjoys to write about cultural aspects of psychoanalysts and about the human relationship to technology. Her main focus is on online role-playing games. An article that I recently read of hers was Constructions and Reconstructions of the Self in Virtual Reality. In it she writes about online games such as Identity workshops, Role-Playing Games, Virtual Realities, and Evocative Objects. Although relatively hard to read at times, I found her article to be quite interesting as well as informative. The first section of her article dealt with Identity Workshops. She talked about how people create different worlds for themselves through the computer. I can identify with this section. At some point in time, everyone in there life wishes they could change something about it. Identity Workshops can also help people deal with their problems. If they are having problems in the work place they can come home and go on the computer and create the perfect world for themselves. I particularly liked this section because I was able to easily identify with it and I am sure many others can as well. The next section was Role-Playing Games. This section helped people cope with the fact that their lives are less than perfect and they are able to be put in a situation that will help them see their problems differently. This section can prove to be helpful for someone who has something wrong in their life and does not know what to do about it. The third section dealt with Virtual Realities and Role Playing to a Higher Power. This section gave an example of a man named Peter who spent 40 hours a week on MUDs. In his program, he makes up his ideal self in a life that is much more sophisticated than his own. He felt that the program kept him from having suicidal thoughts. I feel tha ...

Create a Database Using Delphis File Of Typed Files

Create a Database Using Delphi's File Of Typed Files Simply put a file is a binary sequence of some type. In Delphi, there are three classes of file: typed, text, and untyped. Typed files are files that contain data of a particular type, such as Double, Integer or previously defined custom Record type. Text files contain readable ASCII characters. Untyped files are used when we want to impose the least possible structure on a file. Typed Files While text files consist of lines terminated with a CR/LF (#13#10) combination, typed files consist of data taken from a particular type of data structure. For example, the following declaration creates a record type called TMember and an array of TMember record variables. type   Ã‚  TMember record   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Name : string[50];  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  eMail : string[30];  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Posts : LongInt;  Ã‚  end;  var Members : array[1..50] of TMember; Before we can write the information to the disk, we have to declare a variable of a file type. The following line of code declares an F file variable. var F : file of TMember; Note: To create a typed file in Delphi, we use the following syntax: var SomeTypedFile : file of SomeType The base type (SomeType) for a file can be a scalar type (like Double), an array type or record type. It should not be a long string, dynamic array, class, object or a pointer. To start working with files from Delphi, we have to link a file on a disk to a file variable in our program. To create this link, we must use AssignFile procedure to associate a file on a disk with a file variable. AssignFile(F, Members.dat) Once the association with an external file is established, the file variable F must be opened to prepare it for reading and writing. We call Reset procedure to open an existing file or Rewrite to create a new file. When a program completes processing a file, the file must be closed using the CloseFile procedure. After a file is closed, its associated external file is updated. The file variable can then be associated with another external file. In general, we should always use exception handling; many errors may arise when working with files. For example: if we call CloseFile for a file that is already closed Delphi reports an I/O error. On the other hand, if we try to close a file but have not yet called AssignFile, the results are unpredictable. Write to a File Suppose we have filled an array of Delphi members with their names, e-mails, and number of posts and we want to store this information in a file on the disk. The following piece of code will do the work: var   Ã‚  F : file of TMember;  Ã‚  i : integer;begin   AssignFile(F,members.dat) ;   Rewrite(F) ;   try   Ã‚  for j: 1 to 50 do   Ã‚  Ã‚  Write (F, Members[j]) ;   finally   Ã‚  CloseFile(F) ;   end;end; Read from a File To retrieve all the information from the members.dat file we would use the following code: var   Ã‚  Member: TMember   Ã‚  F : file of TMember;begin   AssignFile(F,members.dat) ;   Reset(F) ;   try   Ã‚  while not Eof(F) do begin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Read (F, Member) ;   Ã‚  Ã‚  {DoSomethingWithMember;}   Ã‚  end;  finally   Ã‚  CloseFile(F) ;   end;end; Note: Eof is the EndOfFile checking function. We use this function to make sure that we are not trying to read beyond the end of the file (beyond the last stored record). Seeking and Positioning Files are normally accessed sequentially. When a file is read using the standard procedure Read or written using the standard procedure Write, the current file position moves to the next numerically ordered file component (next record). Typed files can also be accessed randomly through the standard procedure Seek, which moves the current file position to a specified component. The FilePos and FileSize functions can be used to determine the current file position and the current file size. {go back to the beginning - the first record} Seek(F, 0) ; {go to the 5-th record} Seek(F, 5) ; {Jump to the end - after the last record} Seek(F, FileSize(F)) ; Change and Update Youve just learned how to write and read the entire array of members, but what if all you want to do is to seek to the 10th member and change the e-mail? The next procedure does exactly that: procedure ChangeEMail(const RecN : integer; const NewEMail : string) ;var DummyMember : TMember;begin   {assign, open, exception handling block}   Seek(F, RecN) ;   Read(F, DummyMember) ;   DummyMember.Email : NewEMail;   {read moves to the next record, we have to   go back to the original record, then write}   Seek(F, RecN) ;   Write(F, DummyMember) ;   {close file}end; Completing the Task Thats it- now you have all you need to accomplish your task. You can write members information to the disk, you can read it back, and you can even change some of the data (e-mail, for example) in the middle of the file. Whats important is that this file is not an ASCII file, this is how it looks in Notepad (only one record): .Delphi Guide g Ã’5 ·Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¬. 5. . B V.LÆ’ ,„ ¨.delphiaboutguide.comà .. à §.à §.à ¯..

Teaching Learning Approaches - Multimedia Essay

Teaching Learning Approaches - Multimedia - Essay Example type II diabetes, the humanist theory will be suitable since it considers that real learning is something that the patient discovers for him/herself, basing on the fundamental principle that learning must always be grounded on learner-centered objective identified by the learner him/herself (Aujoulat, 2007). Moreover, the paper will incorporate two multimedia materials that will be used in training the patients. The multimedia to be used will use interactive health websites and virtual communities since the patients to be educated are adults who are well exposed with the digital world of IT. The humanistic theory will incorporate both Maslow hierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow and humanistic approach o psychology by Carl Rogers. Developed by Abraham Maslow, humanistic theory is based on the concept that experience is the key phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior as well. Maslow based his emphasis on creativity, choice, values, all distinctively human qualities, self-actualization, and believed that subjectivity and meaningfulness were always important than objectivity. Maslow believed that full development of human potential, worth and dignity are the ultimate concerns. According to Maslow (1968), human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self-actualization. Tentatively, Maslow tried to prove that the drive to learn is intrinsic thus; the main purpose of learning is to bring about the highest level of the hierarchy of needs, which is self-actualization. In this regard, the objective and process of the educator should include this process (Frick, 1987). Maslow argued that learning contributes to the psychological health of the learne r and came up with learning goals: discovery of one’s vocation or destiny, realization of life as precious, sense of accomplishment, developing choice, satisfaction of physiological needs, grappling with the critical existential problems of life and impulse

MacDonald's and Its Critics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MacDonald's and Its Critics - Essay Example The company implemented various promotional planning in order to increase competency of the company (McDonald’s Restaurants Limited, 2008). The company is also known as the â€Å"Penny Cost† business. It usually means to control cost and on the other side, to increase sales. McDonald’s implementation of penny cost in their marketing strategies helped increasing the sales and profitability of the company. Presently, the company is dealing with 30,000 restaurants all over the world (McDonald’s, 2011). The main aim of this paper is to recognize the competitive advantages attained by McDonald’s through the implementation of effectives strategies related to marketing, human resource as well as other organizational aspects. The discussion of the paper further emphasize on the evaluation of sustainable growth, profitability and the rapid growth achieved by the company through its performance over the past years. The Key Strategic Decision of McDonaldâ€⠄¢s Establishment of Competitive Advantages To gain competitive advantages, McDonald’s has implemented various strategic decisions into practice. Competitive advantages are known as the reward gained over the competitors by contributing towards customer values and perceptions along with other fundamental aspects of business management. Competitive advantages tend to mark the performance level of a firm in a highly competitive market that can be gained through the generic strategies as proposed by Michael Porter, i.e. cost leadership, differentiation and focus (Porter, 1998). McDonald’s adopted the theory of expansion to offer customers with highly efficient services. Their main target was to attain customer satisfaction and also attain competency through expansion. McDonald’s executed various strategies in order to expand the business and attain sustainable growth through competitive advantages. In 1940s Ray Kroc started the business with milk shakes and few oth er items. In 1968, when Mr. Turner was the president of the company, he implemented changes in its organizational structure. Regional offices were established, in different countries and market regions. At that time quality control was not quite significant in the fast food industry, but McDonald’s implemented the quality control strategies which assist to improve the company’s brand image (Bartone & Wells, 2009). McDonald’s provided high quality services to its customers and planned the business structure in a systematic order and attractive manner. McDonald’s implemented strategic alliances which majorly intended differentiating the products, increasing the sales along with the profit. McDonald’s also introduced â€Å"happy meal† chart, which included new recipes. The execution of this procedure attracted new customers. The company also focused on increasing its sales with an addition of 1,200 restaurants in its worldwide chain (Bartone & Wells, 2009). All these factors, such as expansion of target market area, customer base and increase in the customer satisfaction along with increased sales rewarded the company with greater competitive advantages. Sustainable Growth McDonald’s implemented strategic plan such as differentiation, and quality control. This assisted the company to gain competency and long term profitability in the market. McDonald’s executed differentiation of the products, as these strategies were expected to help gaining higher profit along with increasing

Bridgeton Industry, Automotive Component & Fabrication Essay Example for Free

Bridgeton Industry, Automotive Component Fabrication Essay 1.Industry and its relevant characteristics. As the original plant of Bridgeton Industry, Automotive Component Fabrication (ACF) supplies the most components to the U.S automotive industry. The plant has a long history that was established in 1840s and the site developed by several industrial uses. ACF could be the leader of the whole industry because the Big- Three automobile manufacturers are the ACF main customer, which bought the whole production of ACF. 2.Competitive environment  Although there are some competition mainly from local suppliers and other Bridgeton plants in domestic, ACF was still considered to be advantaged as the automotive market and US automotive industry dominated. But it was not that optimistic when the competition from global and domestic loss of market share happened. 3.Products and production processes.  During the 1987 model year, products were analysed and classified to different classes based on their quality, customer service, technical capacity and competitive cost position by a strategic consulting firm and it concluded that: Class I-fuel tanks; Class II-Manifolds, front and rear doors; Class III- Muffler-exhaust systems and oil pants. For producing fuel tanks, firstly six stamping lines from coated sheet metal are used to place those, and they automatically seam welded followed by placing together. Manifolds: a highly automated production process is used to produce stainless steel exhaust manifolds. And the parts are robotically welded after being loaded. The highly advanced system is disadvantaged in cost. Front and rear doors: those are the doors for vans. Four press lines with six presser per line in maximum are used to produce. Muffler-exhaust systems: sheet metal that is bet to shape is used to form those and robotically welded afterwards. Oil pans: it means small steel stampings are produced on two lines with one press each contained. 4. Description of the old cost system.  The overhead was allocated using a predetermined rate of percentage of direct labour cost and it used a single overhead pool. 5. Possible problems with the old cost system. Overhead was allocated using a predetermined rate of percentage of direct labour cost would be subject to some fluctuation. Sometimes it could not reflect the true cost as not every model year has the same percentage overhead of direct labour cost, so end of period adjustment is needed. As ACF’s production is various, using a single overhead pool could not reflect all the cost driven by different cost drivers.

Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect Essay -- Environmental Global

Global Warming and the Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect, in environmental science, is a popular term for the effect that certain variable constituents of the Earth's lower atmosphere have on surface temperatures. It has been known since 1896 that Earth has been warmed by a blanket of gasses (This is called the "greenhouse effect."). The gases--water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4)--keep ground temperatures at a global average of about 15 degrees C (60 degrees F). Without them the average would be below the freezing point of water. The gases have this effect because as incoming solar radiation strikes the surface, the surface gives off infrared radiation, or heat, that the gases trap and keep near ground level. The effect is comparable to the way in which a greenhouse traps heat, hence the term. Environmental scientists are concerned that changes in the variable contents of the atmosphere--particularly changes caused by human activities--could cause the Earth's surface to warm up to a dangerous de gree. Since 1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of approximately 1? C (approximately 1.8? F). Even a limited rise in average surface temperature might lead to at least partial melting of the polar icecaps and hence a major rise in sea level, along with other severe environmental disturbances. An example of a runaway greenhouse effect is Earth's near-twin planetary neighbor Venus. Because of Venus's thick CO2 atmosphere, the planet's clo...

Immanuel Kant: Duty and Reason Essay

The action of an individual is said to depend on lots of factors. The value of these actions is weighed based on the different point of views of humans. Immanuel Kant, a philosopher, classifies the moral worth of an action through the use of two concepts; duty and reason. Acting based on duty and reason can be better understand by looking at these cases from Kant’s point of view and by means of thoroughly analyzing the arguments presented to consider an acts moral worth. Considering the case that a husband loves his wife because he loves her such that he has an inclination to be faithful to her, Kant’s view for this example will be that this case has no moral worth. For Kant, the foundation of morality is duty. The factor that causes human to be moral beings is their duty and the factor to be considered in determining the moral of an act is the persons will to follow his duty. (www. ipf. edu, n. d. ) On the other hand, a husband’s act to remain loyal to his wife as a matter of duty, although he finds it decidedly unpleasant will be considered by Kant to have a moral worth. A moral action has a moral worth not because of the effect of the action itself but because of the value that the action done according to duty that was set by the society. (Abbott, 1907) For Kant, the fact that the action is done only for duty alone is in itself makes the action to contain a moral worth. (Herman, 1981) It refers mainly to duty being implemented through the law that makes an action of moral worth. (www. philosophypages. com, n. d. ) The moral worth of both cases can be better understood through differentiating acting in accordance with duty and acting from duty. Acting in accordance with duty has no moral worth since it is just an act that conforms to duty as guided by self-interest. Acting from duty, on the other hand, is an act that is done because the duty is requiring it. It means that actions will only have a moral worth if they are performed from duty while those actions that are taken as caused by self-interest that accords with duty for whatever reason, have no moral worth. In the example of a husband that loves his wife due to two reasons, we can say that the first case, which is loving the wife because the husband has an inclination to love her is considered by Kant to be of no moral worth since the husband does not love his wife from duty. He just loves the wife because it is his self-interest that motivates him to love her. In that way, he loves according to self-interest that just so happen to be in accord with loving from duty. Thus, he is loving his wife in accordance with duty and is thus it has no moral worth. For the second example of loving which is loving his wife because it is his duty as a husband even if he finds it unpleasant, this act has moral worth for Kant because the act is done out of the need to follow duty. The husband loves his wife because it should be his action towards his wife as it is set by the laws and rule of the society. Even if he will not gain self-pleasure from it, he is still doing it because it is his duty as husband to love his wife. Thus, he is acting from duty and his act contains moral worth for Kant. Upon understanding Kant’s philosophy, I can say that he has a good point on why he believed that the moral worth of an act is based on the duty that forces a person to commit such act. The good thing about his account of moral worth is that an act can be considered to have a moral worth if that is done without self-interest but is done only as dictated by duty. His philosophy is good in a sense because it can assess the moral worth of a person in terms of the responsibility that he should carry and not only acting as a result of his own decision in order to gain pleasure from it. However, I disagree with him. I believe that if an act is done whether for the sake of following your duty or the laws implemented by the society as based from their reasoning, an act can still have a moral worth depending also on its effect on the society. For me, I think that what Kant is trying to say is that the moral worth in different cases that we have to make a decision or an act lies on the will to follow the duty itself. It only means that the one of moral worth is the ability to follow duties or the rules and not the act itself. If we are doing something even if we can just derived pleasure or get something out of it, as long as we don’t step on the rights of others and can contribute to our society, our acts can still have moral worth. In line with this, I can say that acting from duty is morally right as well as acting according to duty as long as our interests do not conflict with the violation of the rights of another people. I think that pursuing self-interest that will lead to the good of other people, as in the case of Mother Teresa, is morally worth. The self-interest in that sense does not conflict with the violation of the rights of others, but instead, it leads to the good of the needy. Hence, it still has its moral worth. For example, a lifeguard is saving the lives of drowning people, even if he doesn’t want too and what he is doing is just a burden for him has a moral worth. Also, a lifeguard that is saving the lives of drowning people and expecting in return that he will receive a word of thank you from the people that he saved still has a moral worth. This is because, I think, that no matter what motivates you to do an act as long as it can help others and does not bypass human rights, that act has a moral worth. In the case of a lifeguard, saving people as caused by duty and saving people as caused by an expectation to receive a word of thanks are both morally correct. It is because the fact that the lifeguard has saved a life no matter what is the reason that makes me considered it to have a moral worth. I also believe that morality is subjective depending on a person’s bringing up, culture, experiences and way of thinking. One act can be of moral value to a person but for some, may be the same act has little or no moral worth at all. That is, morality lies on each one of us and that the effect that it can make to ourselves and especially to our society will greatly dictates its moral worth. Different societies may evaluate the same act to have a different moral worth. A way to explain this is by looking at the case of Eskimos. For Eskimos, offering their wives to have sex with a guest is a polite action as a way of entertaining a visitor. In their way, their act has a moral worth because they are acting from duty. However, if a wife from other country will ask his husband that she wants to have sex with their guest as a way of entertaining the guest, the action is resulting from self-interest and not from duty that is dictated by the culture. Thus, it does not have a moral worth. This explains that the value of moral worth is subjective to culture, and to the specific society itself. Thus, in conclusion, I can say that the first case of loving a wife that was mentioned, which is loving as motivated by inclination, has moral worth because he is still doing his responsibility or duty even if he really wants to do it as directed by his emotion. The second case, which is loving because that is dictated by duty, also contains a moral value, although lesser than the first one. For me, it’s moral worth is less than the first because he is not loving his wife whole heartedly but only loving her because he is required by his duty. I think that in general, Kant’s theory is good but is lacking in a certain aspect that greatly affects the action of human, which is emotions. This is because aside from intellectual reasoning, we also have emotions and that these emotions can also dictate us on how we are going to act. Whether we act from duty or we act in accordance with duty as directed by self-interest which is controlled by emotions, our action can both have moral worth. Thus, in summary Kant had contributed a view about the reason for one’s act in terms of the assessment of the action. However, it is limited and there must be other factors to be considered in assessing the moral value of one’s act, in which his theory must contain. Works Cited Abbott, T. K. (1907). Immanuel Kant Duty Is Prior to Happiness. Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals. Retrieved November 22, 2007 from http://books. google. com/books? id=Y2oIobRXrWIC&pg=PA92&ots=lqnR0qrkHw&dq= On+the+Va lue+of+Acting+from+the+Motive+of+Duty,&ei=wT9FR63gI4KktAPBgYXbBg&sig=Z8 QYGzRw_L9lc eC8Xkj1_JOZjKA Herman, Barbara, (1981). On the Value of Acting from the Motive of Duty. The Philosophical Review. Volume 90, No. 3 pp 359-382. Retrieved November 22, 2007 from http://links. jstor. org/sici? sici=0031- 8108(198107)90%3A3%3C359%3AOTVOAF%3E2. 0. CO%3B2- B www. ipfw. edu. (n. d. ). Retrieved November 22, 2007 from http://209. 85. 173. 104/search? q=cache:_3cincyqJb0J:www. ipfw. edu/phil/faculty/Esteve z/Kant. ppt+Duty+and+Reason-+immanuel+Kant&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us www. philosophypages. com. (n. d. ). Kant: The Moral Order. Retrieved November 22, 2007 from http://www. philosophypages. com/hy/5i. htm.

Outline the case for Votes at 16

In Modern time we have seen the voting system become fairer and simpler in order to incorporate all members of society. From giving Women the right to vote many citizens have believed that the voting age should in fact be lowered from the current standard EU Law of 18, to the minor age of 16. The idea of this vote has been popular among citizens however it seems to be less popular among the older generations. Firstly if young people were given the opportunity to vote then it would allow them to engage more within their society. So in theory if more teenagers feel that they are part of the community then we could expect to see a drastic fall in national crime rates for this age bracket. It makes sense for young people to develop a political opinion whilst they are young and it would ensure that the vote represents a wider society therefore making the political system fairer. At the age of 16 many young people have completed their education and therefore it would make sense for them to be allowed to vote. By the age of 16 they would have been able to form options and does Article 21 of the UN Human Rights list state that every citizen (regardless of age) has the right for their voice to be heard and for action to be taken accordingly. By the age of 16 young people can enrol themselves to serve HM Armed Forces. Therefore if a 16 year old can serve their country, be offering their life then why are they not allowed to vote? Stopping 16 year olds from voting could be classified as discrimination, for a particular group of society are being shunned away due to personal characteristics. Currently a 16 year old can be tried in an Adult Court of Law and sentenced to terms in Adult Prisons. This seems unfair if teenagers do not have the right or ability to question acts of law, in means of voting in a general election. The voice of young people is being shunned away. At the age of 16 the law provides teenagers with the right to leave school and move away from home. These abilities are far more serious than voting due to the fact that the will have huge effects on the person’s later life. I believe that society has rejected the idea of students voting due to the fact that they are being stereotypical. In my opinion society look upon teenagers as outcast thugs whom destroy society. As we begin a chapter in modern politics it is time that we leave these views behind and accept that in fact a huge majority of 16 year olds are in fact strong and educated members of society. Many students at the age of 16 will begin a new chapter into adulthood consequently these students will go out into the world of work. Despite not being able to vote the students will still have to pay taxes! This seems unjust when you consider that they do not have the ability to vote for what they believe to be the fairer tax policy. Young people are the future of this country and therefore they should have the ability to input what they want they would like their society to be like within the future. If a student was to vote at the age of 16 then by the age of 20 a government would have already have shaped their future. I believe that a 16 year old has a stronger right to vote over perhaps a 70 year old for they are the future of tomorrow. It is amazing that despite years of education and a number of new rights 16 year olds can not vote in an election, these seems unjust considering that they are subject to the laws that Parliament makes and they would be subject to paying tax if they were to work. The exclusion of 16 year olds from the ballot boxes is discrimination and a deprivation of a basic international human right.

Stormwater Pollution on the Grand Strand essays

Stormwater Pollution on the Grand Strand essays The lively, family oriented Grand Strand, a booming resort area along the South Carolina coast, is one of the eastern seaboard's largest vacation centers. Myrtle Beach, whose population explodes from 26,000 to 350,000 people in the summer, is single handedly responsible for 40% of the state's tourism revenue (Travel Channel 2). There are millions of things to do along the strand, from golf to shopping, but the main attraction, of course, is the broad, beckoning beach, 60 miles of white sand stretching from the North Carolina border south to Georgetown. Yet, as the demand to visit the coastline of South Carolina continues to grow, so does the need to assess the evident pollution problem within the coastal atmosphere. In the state, storm water runoff is a major pollutant, affecting all aspects of the beach experience. Storm water is water from rain that does not quickly soak into the ground. Storm water runs from rooftops, over paved areas and bare soil, and through sloped lawns a nd fields. Originally, storm water was regarded as clean but as it flows, this runoff collects and transports soil, pet waste, pesticides, fertilizer, oil and grease, leaves, litter, and other potential pollutants. A heavy rainstorm is not needed to send pollutants rushing towards the ocean or nearest body of water; a single garden hose can supply enough water. Water and debris that flows into storm drains and sewers move directly to the ocean, not to a wastewater treatment plant, as many believe. Storm water runoff effects not only South Carolina's coastal environment, but also takes a toll on the economy and the people. In the summer of 1996, as South Carolina's coastal attraction continued to blossom, many became critical of the water quality in South Carolina's ocean beaches. Because of a statement from the Natural Resources Defense Council, as well as an array of local newspaper articles, citizens and vacationers alike became skeptical of why S...

WATCH How working harder not smarter can jump start your start-up

WATCH How working harder not smarter can jump start your start-up Nationally acclaimed chocolatier and Forbes â€Å"30 under 30†Ã‚   entrepreneur Alex Clark sat down with Daily Fuel at her Bon Bon Bon production facility and described how one of her â€Å"awful tendencies† has actually played a prominent role in the success of her business. Listen to Alex describe how at times our perceived deficiencies can actually be our most beneficial attributes.

Euro Zone. Decision Making Process Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Euro Zone. Decision Making Process - Assignment Example The European Central Bank is responsible for undertaking monetary policy of the region zone. It is governed by the President and the board comprising of the heads of the central banks of nations. To keep inflation in control accounts for the principle task of the European Central Bank. Without any common representation, fiscal policies and governance of the current union and other decisions are take in close cooperation and association between member nations in the Euro group. It accounts for making the political decisions with regards to the euro and the European Union. Comprising of finance ministers of member states the Euro Group, it also includes national leaders in the decision making when need arises during emergency situations. The project discusses the range of events happening in the Eurozone and steps taken to control them through effective decision making and controlling. Reacting late to the global financial meltdown, the Eurozone has suffered significant losses arising out of rising public debts and unsustainable deficits in the peripheral economies. Different national leaders have responded to the crisis differently. The project analyses the decision making processes used by leaders in countering with the crisis. This is done in terms of the strategies, cultures, psychology and also the different leadership styles applied in the process. Leadership issues concerning the corporate social responsibilities, ethical conducts and leadership styles are analysed in the project. Lastly the effects that these issues could raise on the future of Eurozone are put to analysis. Recent Events- Eurozone Crisis The euro which was introduced in 2002 as the universal currency of the entire European Union was able to c onsolidate a huge trading area across the world and was instrumental in rivalling the dollar for attaining global supremacy. However, along with the accumulation of unsustainable and massive deficits and rising public debt levels in the numerous peripheral economies the viability of the Eurozone was greatly threatened. This triggered the immense debt crisis of the Eurozone. The crisis is also a vivid depiction of the economic interdependence of the European Union coupled with the lack of political integration within the system which was much needed for providing a coordinated monetary and fiscal stimulus to the crisis. France and Germany showed their reluctant efforts to step inside the political vacuum created out of the crisis. On the other hand, even the wealthiest members of the Eurozone called upon the weaker states to implement rigorous austerity measures for dealing with the crisis. However, this was not successful as it led to the great political unrest and crumbled governme nts of countries like Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece. In spite of many measures to rescue the Euro agreed upon by the leaders of Eurozone volatility prevailing in the markets continued to persist consequently raising questions about the future of the euro (Grauwe, 2010). Analysts have noted that the originally powerful members of the European Union Community like Germany had been initiative and eager to develop a large and competitive Eurozone. Because of this initiative they had also allowed a large number of countries to adopt the euro despite the fact they were not fulfilling the required criteria outlined by Maastricht. However, today all of

Mock Trial Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mock Trial - Case Study Example When she broke up with her fiance just shortly before meeting my client, she suffered several depression and, by her own account, the breakup was very bad. Now, following her breakup with my client, she is seeking legal recourse - she is using the court as an instrument of revenge. The Crown has quite obviously allowed this perversion of the law and the court and is charging my client with entry into sexual relationships via the "exercise of authority." According to the Crown, consent was vitiated by the imbalance of authority in the relationship. Miss McAdams, on the other hand, has stated the opposite - there was never any undue exercise of authority, the was a balance of power in the relationship and she was never, at any point, overwhelmed by Dr. Matheson's authority. So, who are we to believe A woman with a history of less than reasoned reactions to the breakup of relationships or a successful professional who does not have such a history The affair between Miss Soudoski and Dr. Matheson was consensual; it occurred outside my client's office and lasted for four months. We should not be here today and my client should, most definitely, not be standing trial for the exercise of his civil rights; a right which he exercised within the confines of its legal limitations. Do not allow for this perversion of the law. Chief Examination Dr. Matheson Q1: Dr Matheson, are you aware of the severity of the charges brought against you by the Crown A1: Yes I am. If proven guilty, I could loose my license and, hence, my livelihood. Q2: Did you or did you not engage in an affair with Miss Soudoski A2: Yes I did. Our professional relationship had ended by that time, however. As soon as I realized that our interest in one another was more than professional, I proposed that Miss Soudoski seek treatment elsewhere Q3: Did she A3: No she didn't but, from a professional point of view, she really did not need to. Q4: Are you claiming that she was well, that you had cured her from her depression in a handful of sessions A4: No I am not. I am just saying that her depression was an exaggerated reaction to her fiance's having broken up their engagement and cancelling their wedding. It would take time to pass but she did not need a psychologist for that. As I told her in our first meeting, this was something she had to work out for herself - work out by accepting the reality. Q5: What was her response A5: She insisted that she need professional help to get through this period. Q6: When did the relationship move from the professional to the personal A6: Maybe within a month or six weeks. Miss Soudoski began to take a personal interest in me and began asking me personal questions. What type of women I liked Whether I was single or involved in a relationship Questions of that type. At first I tried to avoid answering but to tell you the truth, I found her quite attractive. Therefore, I suggested that we end our professional relationship. Q7: Who initiated the affair A7: Miss Soudoski did. She invited me to her home for drinks and matters escalated from there. Q8: Did you, at any time, meet with her in your office after that A8: Yes I did - several times in fact. But never in a professional capacity and I always told her that she shouldn't come

Adult Education in the 21st Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Adult Education in the 21st Century - Essay Example Many theories have been put forward on how adults learn in the 21st century resulting to different propositions in this issue. One of the many theories proposed is Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy that has gained acceptance based on recognition. This theory has been accepted without careful consideration of its propositions. Though widely accepted, there have been debates about this theory’s classification. People have not been able to define this theory according to its work (is it an adult learning theory, a teaching theory, a philosophical theory or all of these) because it may serve different purposes. Adult learning process is a bit different from child education, and it would encompass issues such as the purpose of learning. This process would also require that those being taught choose how they want the process to be done. This would not be the case when dealing with school going children. This write up looks on how adult learning is done in the 21st century. Knowles defines andragogy as â€Å"the art and science of teaching adults.† In his efforts to work on this theory, he gave four assumptions upon which adult learning would be based. According to Knowles, adult learning is based on the following assumptions. The first assumption is that teachers are responsible for helping adults to move from reliance and become independent.The other assumption is that learners are believed to see education as a way to increase their competence. Thirdly, Knowles makes an assumption that learners will be willing to learn to aim that the knowledge attained would enable them solve real-life problems. The other assumption is that adults have are experienced, and this would facilitate the learning process. Later, Knowles together with Holton and Swanson added two assumptions on adult learning. The first one was that adults knew the reason that made them learn at that age. The final assumption in this area is that self esteem is a motivator for adul t education. One concept in this theory is that adult learning has been compared to a contract that requires at least two parties. The teacher and the learner negotiate on the outcome of the learning process that is yet to be implemented. Negotiations on how the outcome will be achieved are also done by these two parties. This corporation of the teacher and the learner in formulating strategies together is the foundation upon which andragogy is based. Therefore, andragogy provide insights on the learning process and is considered an approach to adult education and development (St. Clair, 2002). Transformational and relative learning Adult learning process applies a process called situated learning which tackles activities that are familiar to the learner. Here, the adult students learn through immersion in activities that concern their discipline of study. For instance, engineering and political science students would be required to examine the content and structure of governmental websites. This would enable them study the weaknesses and strengths of government resources that are provided online (Sholes, 2003). Situated learning will aim to achieve various aspects on adults taking learning lessons. Present the students with situations that would reflect the way they will apply the knowledge they have acquired in real life situations. For example, this would be in problem solving in their discipline of work. It will also provide numerous roles and multiple perspectives, support working together in construction of knowledge and admission to expert performances. Constructive- development learning The other theory applied in adult learning is constructive- development theory that encompasses adult growth and the learning proc

Analysis of Migration Patterns in Afghanistan

Analysis of Migration Patterns in Afghanistan Migration in Afghanistan: 1. Introduction Afghanistan is home to the largest refugee crises experienced since the inception of the UNHCR. Decades of war have led millions to flee their homes and seek refuge in the neighboring countries of Pakistan and Iran, and for those who were able, further abroad. The number of refugees spiked in 1990 at 6.2 million. They began to decrease in 1992 with the fall of the government, but began to increase again in 1996 with the rise of the Taliban. In 2002, with the fall of the Taliban and the US-led invasion, record numbers of Afghan refugees returned to Afghanistan. An international reconstruction and development initiative began to aid Afghans in rebuilding their country from decades of war. Reports indicate that change is occurring in Afghanistan, but the progress is slow. The Taliban have regained strength in the second half of this decade and insurgency and instability are rising. Afghanistan continues to be challenged by underdevelopment, lack of infrastructure, few employment opportunities, and widespread poverty. The slow pace of change has led Afghans to continue migrating in order to meet the needs of their families. Today refugee movements no longer characterize the primary source of Afghan migration. Migration in search of livelihoods is the primary reasons for migration and occurs through rural-urban migration in Afghanistan or circular migration patterns as Afghans cross into Pakistan and/or Iran. Afghans utilize their social networks to find low-skilled work in the cities or neighboring countries. The highly skilled in Afghanistan often seek to migrate to Western countries, as the opportunities in Afghanistan are limited. Afghans transnational movements have led to the development of the Afghan Diaspora, which has been essential in providing remittances to families in Afghanistan to meet their daily needs. The Afghan Diaspora has been involved in the reconstruction effort and is a key contributor to development in Afghanistan. The continued engagement of the Diaspora is important to the building of Afghanistans future. This paper seeks to provide an overview of migration and development in Afghanistan. It will begin with a country profile on Afghanistan (Chapter 2), followed by a review of historical migration patterns in Afghanistan (Chapter 3) and a synthesis of current migration patterns in Afghanistan (Chapter 4). The paper will then move to discuss migration and development in Afghanistan (Chapter 5), the Afghan Diaspora (Chapter 6), policies regarding migration in Afghanistan (Chapter 7), and the migration relationship between the Netherlands and Afghanistan (Chapter 8). The paper will conclude with an examination of future migration prospects for Afghanistan (Chapter 9) and a conclusion (Chapter 10). 2. General Country Profile Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world and has been inundated by decades of war, civil strife and poverty. Today, Afghanistan is central in media attention due to the US led invasion post 9/11, however the country has been in turmoil for much longer. This section will provide a brief overview of the recent history of Afghanistan, the current economic situation, the current political situation, a cultural overview, and the current status of women in the country. Historical Overview The modern history of Afghanistan can be divided into four essential periods: pre 1978, 1978-1992, 1992-2001, and post 2001. Pre 1978 Afghanistan was founded in 1774 by Ahmad Shah Durrani who unified the Pashtun tribes in the region and created the state (CIA, 2009). The country was ruled by a monarchy and acted as a buffer between the British and Russian empires until it received independence from conjectural British control in 1919 (CIA, 2009). The last King, Zahir Shah, reigned from 1933 to 1973, when he was overthrown by a coup detat led by his cousin and ex-premier President Mohammed Daoud (Jazayery, 2002). Opposition to Daouds Government lead to a coup in 1978 by the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) (Jazayery, 2002). 1978-1992 Soviet Invasion The PDPA was a Marxist regime and from 1989 was supported by the Soviet Union. This was the first major flow of refugees from Afghanistan. The occupation by the Soviets was viewed in the west as an escalation of the Cold War. The West began to fund millions of dollars, which became billions of dollars, to the resistance forces known as the Mujahideen (Jazayery, 2002). The resistance forces operated primarily from Pakistan. In 1986 when Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union, the Soviets began the process of extraditing themselves from Afghanistan and by 1989 the Soviets had left Afghanistan. 1992-2001 Taliban Rule In 1992 the Mujahideen forces overthrew Najibullahs Government. A failure of consensus of the new Government led to a civil war from 1992-1996 (Jazayery, 2002). Afghanistan became divided into tribal fiefdoms controlled by armed commanders and warlords (Poppelwell, 2007). The country was in a state of anarchy and Afghans lived in a state of constant fear of physical and sexual assault (Poppelwell, 2007). During this time, the Taliban emerged in 1994, claiming that Afghanistan should be ruled by Sharia (Islamic law) (Jazayery, 2002). The Taliban received support and funding from Saudi Arabia and Arab individuals in the quest to establish a pure Islamic model state (Poppelwell, 2007). The Taliban swept through Afghanistan encountering no resistance by the Mujahideen and were welcomed in many areas as they established relative security in the areas they controlled (Jazayery, 2002). By 1998, The Taliban had captured the majority of the country and established the â€Å"Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan† (Jazayery, 2002). A Northern Alliance that arose in opposition to the Taliban maintained a Government of the â€Å"Islamic State of Afghanistan† with Burhanuddin Rabbini as president (Jazayery, 2002). The Taliban Government was only recognized by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, while the Government of Rabbini maintained an officially represented seat at th e UN (Jazayery, 2002). After the bombings of the US Embassys in Kenya and Tanzania the Taliban were asked to stop harboring Osama bin Laden (Poppelwell, 2007). At their refusal, the UN imposed sanctions against the Taliban and Afghanistan in 1999 (Poppelwell, 2007). By this time the Taliban were known for disregarding international law and human rights (Poppelwell, 2007). During this time, killing, pillaging, raping, and ethnic cleansing of individuals occurred across Afghanistan by the Taliban regime (Jazayery, 2002). Post 2001 The events of 9/11 2001 led the US to lead Coalition Forces to invade Afghanistan on 7 October 2007. Within months the military forces had taken control of Afghanistan and declared the fall of the Taliban. The International Security and Assistance Forces (ISAF) in Afghanistan began with 5,000 troops. In 2003, NATO took over the ISAF, which now, due to increased security concerns, is comprised of approximately 50,000 troops coming from all 28 NATO members (NATO, 2009). In December 2001 a UN led interim administration was established under the Bonn Agreement. The Bonn Agreement established a new constitution and the first democratic elections in 2004 (Poppelwell, 2007). Hamid-Karzai, became the leader of a broad based thirty-member ethnic council that aimed to be multi-ethnic and representative of Afghan society (Poppelwell, 2007). The new administration faced many challenges and in 2005 the Taliban began to regain strength in Afghanistan. The increased security challenges led to the London Conference in January 2006 to address the end of the Bonn agreement and the current challenges in Afghanistan. The result of the London Conference was the Afghanistan Compact, which identified a five-year plan for Afghanistan. The Afghanistan Compact is based on three key pillars: â€Å"security, governance, the rule of law and human rights; economic and social development; and the cross-cutting issue of counter-narcotics† (Poppelwell, 2007, p. 8). Western Governments have taken on specific areas as a country lead for areas in which they will focus. The reconstruction process in Afghanistan has been extensive. A total of $14,775,000,000 US dollars has been contributed to the reconstruction process since 2001 (Livingston, Messera, and Shapiro, 2009). Despite the development efforts, insecurity has increased since 2005 with the Taliban regaining strength. The overall situation in Afghanistan continues to be characterized by conflict and poverty. Demographics A census has not been conducted in Afghanistan since prior to the Soviet invasion in 1978. Thus, all demographic information is estimates. In 2009, the CIA World Factbook estimated the population of Afghanistan to be 28.3 million. This was a significant decrease from the previous estimate of 33.6 million. An Afghanistan census is scheduled for 2010. The population growth rate in Afghanistan was estimated by the United Nations to be 3.9 percent 2005-2010 (UN Data, 2009). Economic and Poverty Overview Economic progress in Afghanistan is occurring through the reconstruction effort, however, Afghanistan continues to be one of the least developed and poorest countries in the world. Table 1 provides an overview of key economic and poverty indicators for Afghanistan in 2007. Real GDP growth for 2008-09 decelerated to 2.3 percent from 16.2 percent in 2007-08 (World Bank, 2009). This is the lowest GDP growth has been in the post-Taliban period and was due to poor agricultural production (World Bank, 2009). In 2009, however, growth is expected to increase due to a good agricultural harvest (World Bank, 2009). Table 1: Key Indicators GDP Per Capita (PPP US $) 1,054 Life Expectancy 43.6 Adult Literacy Rate (% aged 15 and above) 28.0 Combined Gross Enrolment Ration in Education 50.1 Human Poverty Index Rank 135.0 Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40 (% of cohort) 40.7 Population not using an improved water Source (%) 78.0 Children underweight for age (% under age 5) 39.0 Overseas Development Assistance per Capita (US$) 146.0 Source: UNDP, 2009 The latest poverty assessment in Afghanistan was conducted in 2005 through the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA). The findings indicate that the poverty rate was 42 percent, corresponding to 12 million people living below the poverty line (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2009, p. 14). In addition, 20 percent of the population was slightly above the poverty line, suggesting that a small economic shock could place them below the poverty line (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2009, p. 14). It is evident that widespread poverty continues to be a challenge in Afghanistan. Political Situation In August 2009, Afghanistan held it second democratic elections (World Bank, 2009). The incumbent President Hamid Karzai, was re-elected with 50 percent of the necessary votes, however, since the election there have been over 2,000 fraud allegations lodged with the Electoral Complaints Commission (ECC). The Independent Election Commission announced in October 2009 that its final results indicated less than 50 percent of the votes for Karzai. Thus, a run-off election was scheduled for November between Karzai and the lead opponent. Before the election, however, the opponent withdrew from the race leaving Karzai as President (World Bank, 2009). The United Nations Mission to Afghanistan has continued to coordinate international assistance and support the Afghan government in developing good governance. The key aspects of the UN Mission political mandate include: â€Å"preventing and resolving conflicts; building confidence and promoting national reconciliation; monitoring and advising on the political and human rights situation; investigating and making recommendations relating to human rights violations; maintaining a dialogue with Afghan leaders, political parties, civil society groups, institutions, and representatives of central, regional and provincial authorities; recommending corrective actions; and undertaking good offices when necessary to further the peace process† (UNAMA, 2009). The political situation in Afghanistan continues to be complex. In 2009, Transparency International rated Afghanistan 1.3 on the Global Corruption Perceptions Index (Transparency International, 2009). This was the second lowest ranking with only Somalia receiving a lower score. This suggests a high lack of trust in the Government of Afghanistan. Culture/ Ethnic Groups Afghanistan is a traditional and conservative society with large ethnic divisions. Table 2 shows the percentage of the population that belongs to the different ethnic groups. Table 2: Ethnic Groups in Afghanistan 1970s 2006 Pashtun 39.4 40.9 Tajik 33.7 37.1 Uzbeck 8 9.2 Hazara 8 9.2 Turkmen 3.3 1.7 Aimak 4.1 0.1 Baloch 1.6 0.5 Other 1.9 1.4 Source: The Asia Foundation, 2006; Encycopedia Iranica, 2009 The Pashtuns have generally been the majority in Afghanistan. They occupy land in the South and the East and are divided amoung tribal lines. The Tajiks are primarily Sunni Muslims who are Persian and occupy the Northeast and West of Afghanistan. The Tajiks are often well educated and landowners. The Uzbecks are descendents from the Turks and are primarily involved in agriculture. The Hazaras are primarily Shiite Muslims who occupy the infertile highlands in central Afghanistan. The Hazaras are subsistence farms that have used migration routes for survival for centuries (Robinson and Lipson, 2002). The vast majority of the population in Afghanistan is Sunni Muslim (87.9 percent). Shiia Muslims account for 10.4 percent of the population and the remaining ethnic groups are negligible in numbers. Shiia Muslims are thus a minority and have faced persecution in Afghanistan. Status of Women Afghanistans GDI (Gender Development Index) value is 0.310, which is 88.1 percent of its Human Development Index (HDI) (UNDP, 2009). The HDI does not account for gender inequality, and the GDI adds this component to the HDI. Afghanistan ranks 155 out of 155 countries measured in the world for its GDI. Indicators, such as literacy, illustrate this; 43.1 percent of adult males are literate, compared to 12.6 percent of adult females (UNDP, 2009). The culture of Afghanistan is a based on traditional gender roles. Traditionally, women are seen as embodying the honour of the family (World Bank, 2005). As such, women are given as brides to create peace, or to honour a relationship. The role of a wife is to maintain the household and support the husband, which includes domestic and sexual services. In general, a wife meets the husbands needs and if the wife does not she has dishonoured her family and community (World Bank, 2005). The legal rights of women in Afghanistan have changed with the political structure. Prior to Taliban rule, the Constitution of Afghanistan guaranteed women equal rights under the law, although local tribes may have had different customs. Under Taliban rule womens rights were severely hindered as they were not permitted to leave their homes unless accompanied by a close male relative, receive education, and had restricted access the health care and employment. Women were frequently raped and abused during this time. With the fall of the Taliban the situation has improved for women, however there are great differences between the rural and urban situation (World Bank, 2005). The Ministry of Womens Affairs (MOWA) was established in the Bonn Agreement to promote the advancement of women in Afghanistan. MOWA works in an advocacy role to ensure that policies are implemented for both men and women. In addition, MOWA works with NGOs to ensure programs for women are implemented. Womens rights remain to be a primary concern in Afghanistan. At present, approximately 60 percent of women are married before the age of 16 (IRIN, 2005). At 44, women in Afghanistan have one of the lowest life expectancies in the world (UNDP, 2009). Women who are widowed are ostracized in rural communities, but are often able to make a living in the cities to support themselves and their families. However, female-headed households tend to be primarily represented in the poorest quintiles of Afghan society (World Bank, 2005). The situation for women in the urban centres such as Kabul is becoming more liberal. Education rates of girls in the urban centres are high than rural areas and these indicators suggest changes are occurring for women in urban areas. Womens rights are high on the international policy agenda for Afghanistan and a key goal of development aid. 3. Historic Overview of Migration Migration in Afghanistan has had a long history and has significantly shaped the countries social and cultural landscape (Monsutti, 2007). Historically, Afghanistan was a country of trade between the east and the west and a key location on the Silk Road trade route. Thus, migration is a part of the historical identity of the country. The following chapter presents an overview of the complex migration patterns, with a historical perspective. Migration Patterns from Afghanistan to Pakistan and Iran Prior to 1978 Migration between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran has a long history. The migration relationships are rooted in the ethnic ties that span the borders between the countries. For instance, Pashtuns make up 20 percent of the population in Pakistan and 30 percent in Afghanistan. The Pashtuns are separated by the Pakistan-Afghanistan border, which is referred to as the Durand Line. The Durand Line was established during British colonialism to demarcate British India from Afghanistan, and has been acknowledged to be an arbitrary divide of Pashtun land (Monsutti, 2005). Thus, cross-border migration of the Pashtuns between Afghanistan and Pakistan has been a way of life. Similarly, the Hazaras of Afghanistan are Shiites Muslims, which is the majority religion in Iran (Monsutti, 2005). Hazaras regularly engaged in migration to and from Iran via religious ties. These ethnic and cultural ties led to cross-border migration for decades prior to the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan. The poor economic position of Afghanistan prior to 1978 led to further economic migration to the better off states of Pakistan and Iran. Stigter states, â€Å"The economic differences between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran have long led Afghans to migrate to these countries to find employment and, for Iran, enjoy the benefits of a higher income† (2006, p. 117). In the 1960s and 1970s industrialization in Afghanistan was minimal and there were limited opportunities for the newly educated and growing rural population (Stigter, 2006). A widespread drought in the 1970s led to large-scale crop failure and further migration of many Afghans from the north and north-western Afghanistan into Iran (Monsutti, 2006). In addition, the oil boom of 1973 caused further increasing numbers of Afghans to cross into Iran and other Middle Eastern countries to capitalize on the labour opportunities (Stigter, 2006). Studies have also confirmed that prior to the war migrants from Northern Afghanis tan travelled to Pakistan during the winter, illustrating that seasonal migration occurred between the two countries (Stigter, 2006 from CSSR, 2005). These pre-established migration movements reveal that social networks were established between Afghanistan and Pakistan and Iran prior to the Soviet Invasion and proceeding wars. Monsutti states that â€Å"Channels of pre-established transnational networks exist between Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran- the movement of individuals to seek work, to escape drought or to flee war has been a common experience in Afghanistan† (Monsutti, 2006, p. 6-7). Thus, it can be deduced that migration to Pakistan and Iran was a natural option for many Afghans. International Migration Post 1978 International migration movements from Afghanistan from 1978 have primarily been comprised of refugee flows. The vast majority of refugees fled to Pakistan and Iran in the largest refugee crises of the late 20th Century. 1 shows the number of Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran from 1979-2001. 1 illustrates that refugee outflows from Afghanistan began in 1979 with the Soviet Invasion. The outflows continued to increase during the Soviet occupation when there was civil war between the US funded Mujahideen and the Soviet backed Najibullah. Flows during this time spanned social classes and ethnic groups as the initial reason for migration was primarily protection led. However, reasons of a lack of economic opportunities, devastation of infrastructure and trade networks, limited access to social services such as healthcare and education, and political and social reasons also contributed to migration flows (Stigter, 2006). Migration was thus not only refugee protection, but also the need to make a livelihood (Stigter, 2006). The peak of the refugee flows occurred in 1990 with 6.2 million Afghan refugees. This was after the Soviet withdrawal and when the Najibullah remained in power (Jazayery, 2002, p. 240). In the 1990s drought contributed to continuing refugee flows from Afghanistan (Stigter, 2006). The fall of the Najibullah in 1992 led to large-scale repatriation. However, with the Taliban gaining power in 1996, the number of refugees began to increase again to approximately 3.8 million refugees in 2001. During the initial refugee outflows in 1979 both Pakistan and Iran warmly welcomed the refugees under a banner Muslim solidarity (Monsutti, 2006). Iran is a signatory and Pakistan is not a signatory to the 1951 Convention of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, however both countries welcomed the refugees. In Iran the refugees were given identification cards, allowed access to work, health care, food, free primary and secondary education, and were free to settle where they chose (Monsutti, 2006). Pakistan created an agreement with the United Nations to provide services to the Afghan refugees and received financial support from the international community (Monsutti, 2006). The era of welcoming Afghan refugees began to change in 1989. In Pakistan refugees were still welcomed from 1989-2001, but were not provided with the same level of services and facilitation (Monsutti, 2006). In Iran support also decreased and by the 1990s refugees no longer received identity cards and assistance (Monsutti, 2006). The position of the host countries became increasingly unfriendly post 2001, which will be discussed in the next chapter of this paper. Return Migration The Mujahideen took over the government in 1992 and as a result nearly 2 million refugees returned to Afghanistan. By 1997 an estimated 4 million refugees had returned from Pakistan and Iran (Stigter, 2006). Simultaneously, however, conflicts between rival Mujahideen groups dissuaded many refugees from returning, and created new refugees and IDPs. Internal Migration The primary source of internal migration in Afghanistan was Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Internally Displaced Persons Internal displacement flows have followed a similar trajectory as refugee flows. The exact number of IDPs is not known and 3 shows estimated number of IDPs in Afghanistan from 1985-2001. Generally those who are internally displaced do not have the means to cross an international border. IDPs in Afghanistan had access to very few services during this period. The UNHCRs capacity in Afghanistan began to increase after 1992 as is illustrated in 3 by the red line. From 1995 the two lines start to converge as the number of IDPs assisted by UNHCR increases and the total number of IDPs decreases. By 2001 the number of IDPs has significantly increased to 1.2 million. The number of IDPs in Afghanistan will be further examined in the next chapter. 4. Current Migration Patterns- 2001- Present Current migration patterns in Afghanistan are complex and multifaceted. Since 2001 Afghanistan has witnessed the largest movement of refugee return in UNHCRs history (Monsutti, 2008). These flows have been a mixture of voluntary and forced return of refugees who had been outside of Afghanistan for varying periods. The majority of returnees are from Pakistan. Afghan refugees have maintained ties with Pakistan and now cross-border labour migration between Afghanistan and Pakistan is increasing. In addition to international flows, the numbers of IDPs have decreased in Afghanistan since 2001 as IDPs return to their regions of origin. Finally, within this picture there are large flows of rural-urban migration as returnees and non-returnees find limited opportunities in rural areas and move to the cities in search of work. All of these flows are occurring simultaneously and present a complex picture of current migration patterns and flows. Each of these areas will be addressed in the follo wing section. Internal Migration Internal migration flows in Afghanistan have been increasing in the post-Taliban period. As refugees and migrants return to Afghanistan they do not necessarily end their migration cycle. Returnees may continue to migrate internally in search of livelihoods and opportunities. The internal migration flows in Afghanistan are comprised of IDPs, rural to urban migration, and trafficking. Internally Displaced Persons Internal displacement in Afghanistan has been understudied and information is limited to availability from the UNHCR. In 2004, the UNHCR conducted a data profiling of IDPs in UNHCR assisted camps and in 2008 the UNHCR created a national profile of IDPs in Afghanistan. Statistics regarding IDPs are estimates[1]. Table 3 shows the number of IDPs and IDP returnees from 2001 to 2008. At the fall of the Taliban in 2001 there were approximately 1.2 million IDPs in Afghanistan, of which many returned spontaneously in 2002 (UNHCR, 2008, p. 6). In 2008, IDP returns were negligible due to continued insecurity, inter-tribal and personal conflict, landlessness and drought, and lack of job opportunities and basic services in rural areas (UNHCR, 2008). Table 3: IDPs Total and Returns: 2001-2008 IDPs IDP Returnees Year Total Assisted Total Assisted 2001 1,200,000 2002 665,200 753,300 2003 184,300 2004 159,500 27,400 2005 143,000 17,000 8,600 2006 129,300 129,300 10,400 10,400 2007 153,700 153,700 8,000 8,000 2008 230,700 230,700 6,500 4,000 Total 2,865,700 513,700 822,600 31,000 Source: UNHCR Global Reports, 2001-2008 Of the current IDPs (235,000) the UNHCR identifies 132,000 as a protracted caseload (2008). Table 4 shows the reasons for displacement of the current IDP population. These numbers do not include those who are invisible IDPs or urban unidentified IDPs. UNHCR estimates that the actual number of IDPs in Afghanistan is substantially larger than the numbers suggest (2008, p. 18). Table 4: Reason for Displacement of Current IDPs (2008) Reason for Displacement No. of Families No. of Individuals Protracted 31,501 166,153 New Drought affected 1,083 6,598 New Conflict Affected 1,749 9,901 Returnees in Displacement 8,737 52,422 Battle-affected 127 759 Total 43,197 235,833 Source: UNHCR, 2008 Since 2007 the return of IDPs has continued to decrease due to increased instability in the country, drought, landlessness, and the spread of conflict and insurgency areas (IDMC, 2008). Disputes are arising between IDPs and locals as in Afghan culture if you are not born in the region you do not belong there (IDMC, 2008). Options for IDPs appear to be limited as they are not welcomed in the regions where they are seeking protection. Rural to Urban Migration Urbanization is rapidly occurring in Afghanistan as returnees settle in the cities and people migrate from rural communities to urban centres. Approximately 30 percent of returnees settle in Kabul (Stigter, 2006). The population of Kabul in 2001 was roughly 500,000 and it had grown to over 3 million by 2007 (IRIN, 2007). The urban centres do not have the infrastructure or resources to meet the needs of the large inflows of migrants, however, research suggest that the difficult situations in the cities are better than rural areas. In 2005 the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit conducted a study on rural to urban migration (Opel, 2005). A total of 500 migrants were interviewed in the cities of Kabul, Herat, and Jalalabad. The majority of migrants were male (89 percent) and the average age of migrants was 31 years (p. 4). Males tend to migrate to support their families, and females migrate when they have lost their husbands or have been ostracized by their community and have no means of supporting themselves in rural areas. The majority did not own productive assets in their village (71.2 percent), although 43 percent owned a house in their village (p. 8). The primary reasons for migration were the lack or work in the village and better opportunities in town (42%), followed by lack of work in the village (38.2%) and insecurity (16.3%) (p. 11). The majority of migrants made the journey on their own (70.7%) and paid for the journey from their savings (p.14). Migration to urban areas is expensive and the poor est of the poor cannot afford the journey. Once in the cities, the majority were employed in low skilled day labour work and on average respondents reported working 16 out of the past 30 days (p. 20). Social networks were essential in people finding work as 89 percent of skilled workers and 60 percent of unskilled workers reported receiving assistance from a relative, friend or neighbour (p. 20). Incomes in the cities were low, but were higher than what individuals could earn in the rural areas. The majority of urban migrants remitted money to their family in rural areas, which they carried with them when they returned or sent through family or friends. None of the urban migrants use the Hawala (see Chapter 6) system, which was reported to be too expensive for them. The majority of migrants reported planning to settle in the city (55%) (p. 26). Overall, the majority did improve their economic situation through migration (61.9% for males and 80.9% for females) (p. 27). The large-scale migration to urban centers appears to be a trend that will continue. It is estimated that urban centers are now accounting for 30 percent of the population in Afghanistan (Opel, 2005). The rapid urbanization has shifted rural poverty to urban poverty (Stigter, 2006) and many challenges remain for the cities in managing the rapid growth. National Trafficking In 2003 the IOM in Afghanistan conducted a study on trafficking of Afghan women and children. Research on trafficking in Afghanistan is difficult due to the lack of data inherent in all areas of Afghanistan, but increasingly so due to the fear of reporting trafficking related crimes and the shame associated with such